References

Mental Health

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Casey, L., & Liang, R. P. (2014). Stress and Wellbeing in Australia survey 2014. Australian Psychology Society: Melbourne, Australia.

Cockshaw, W. D., & Shochet, I. (2010). The link between belongingness and depressive symptoms: An exploration in the workplace interpersonal context.Australian Psychologist, 45(4), 283-289.

Kessler, R. C., Andrews, G., Colpe L. J., et al. (2002). Short screening scales to monitor population prevalence and trends in non-specific psychological distress.Psychological Medicine, 32, 959-976.

Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour research and therapy, 33(3), 335-343.

Scott, J., Leboyer, M., Hickie, I., Berk, M., Kapczinski, F., Frank, E., … & McGorry, P. (2013). Clinical staging in psychiatry: a cross-cutting model of diagnosis with heuristic and practical value. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 202(4), 243-245.

Higher Education

Biggs, J. (2003). Aligning teaching for constructing learning. Higher Education Academy. Retrieved from: https://www.heacademy.ac.uk/sites/default/files/resources/id477_aligning_ teaching_for_constructing_learning.pdf

Baik, C., Naylor, R., & Arkoudis, S. (2015). The first year experience in Australian universities: Findings from two decades, 1994-2014. Melbourne Centre for the Study of Education, The University of Melbourne: Melbourne, Australia.

Graduate Careers Australia and the Social Research Centre [GRA & SRC] (2015). 2014 University Experience Survey National Report. [authors]. ISBN 978-1-74361-508-9

Lunsford, L. (2012). Doctoral advising or mentoring? Effects on student outcomes. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 20(2), 251-270.

Maclellan, E. (2004). Assessment for learning. The RoutledgeFalmer Reader in Higher Education, 26(4), 85.

Margolis, E. (2001). The hidden curriculum in higher education. Psychology Press.

McAuliffe, B., Hargreaves, D., Winter, A.J., & Chadwick, G. (2009). Does pedagogy still rule? Australasian Journal of Engineering Education, 15(1) 13-18.

McAuliffe, M., Martin, P., Cameron, L. & Hankinson, J. (2015). Embedding metacognitive skills in spatial design. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 2(2). Retrieved from http://www.ijicc.net/

McInnis, C. (2001). Signs of disengagement? The changing undergraduate experience in Australian universities. Inaugural Professorial Lecture. University of Melbourne.

Meyer, J., & Land, R. (2003). Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge: Linkages to ways of thinking and practising within the disciplines (pp. 412-424). Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh.

Naylor, R., Chakravarti, S., & Baik, C. (2016). Differing motivations and requirements in PhD student cohorts: A case study. Issues in Educational Research, 26(2), 351-367.

Norton, J. (2011). “Getting to the end”: Psychological factors influencing research higher degree completion. Journal of the Australia and New Zealand Student Services Association, 38, 1-9.

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). Motivation and classroom learning. In W.M. Reynolds, & G.E. Miller (Eds), Handbook of Psychology: Educational Psychology, Vol. 7. (pp. 103-122). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to teach in higher education. London: Routledge.

Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to teach in higher education (2^nd Edn). London: Routledge.

Satariyan, A., Getenet, S., Gube, J., & Muhammad, Y. (2015). Exploring supervisory support in an Australian university: perspectives of doctoral students in an education faculty. Journal of the Australia and New Zealand Student Services Association.

Schraw, G., & Lehman, S. (2001). Situational interest: A review of the literature and directions for future research. Educational Psychology Review,13(1), 23-52. [when learning tasks are designed around students’ interests]

Sharpe, L. (2008). Defining the term ‘threshold concepts’. Unpublished document, Flinders University. Retrieved from: www.flinders.edu.au/Teaching_and_Learning_Files/…/threshold.doc

Mental Health and Higher Education

Australian Government. (1992). Disability Discrimination Act 1992. Attorney General’s Department.

Baik, C., Naylor, R., & Arkoudis, S. (2015). The first year experience in Australian universities: Findings from two decades, 1994-2014. Melbourne Centre for the Study of Education, The University of Melbourne: Melbourne, Australia.

Bather, M. (2013). Civil engineering students; What stops them engaging: Motivation, work or family?. Journal for Education in the Built Environment, 8(1), 1-15. doi: 10.11120/jebe.2013.00006

Bathurst, L., & Grove, J. (2000). Damned if you do. Damned if you don’t. Students’ experiences of disclosing a mental health disorder. Pathways IV, Canberra, ACT, 5-8.

Bexley, E., Daroesman, S., Arkoudis, S., & James, R. (2013). University student finances in 2012: A study of the financial circumstances of domestic and international students in Australia’s universities. Canberra: Universities Australia. Retrieved from https://www.universitiesaustralia.edu.au/news/commissioned-studies/Australian-University-Student-Finances-in-2012/Australian-University-Student-Finances-in-2012#.Vt4qmqYsY59

Brett, M., Harvey, A., Funston, A., Spicer, R., & Wood, A. (2016). The role of inherent requirement statements in Australian Universities. Final report to national Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education (NCSEHE). La Trobe University: Victoria, Australia.

Cvetkovski, S., Reavley, N. J., & Jorm, A. F. (2012). The prevalence and correlates of psychological distress in Australian tertiary students compared to their community peers. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 46(5), 457-467.

Dyrbye, L. N., Thomas, M. R., & Shanafelt, T. D. (2006). Systematic review of depression, anxiety, and other indicators of psychological distress among US and Canadian medical students. Academic Medicine, 81(4), 354-373.

Erdur-Baker, O., Aberson, C. L., Barrow, J. C., & Draper, M. R. (2006). Nature and severity of college students’ psychological concerns: A comparison of clinical and nonclinical national samples. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 37(3), 317.

Kerr, H. (2013). Mental Distress Survey Overview. MRS Evidence Matters: United Kingdom. Retrieved from: http://www.nus.org.uk/Global/Campaigns/ 20130517%20Mental% 20Distress%20Survey%20%20Overview.pdf

Khawaja, N., & Stallman, H. M. (2011). Understanding the coping strategies of international students: A qualitative approach. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 21(2), 203-224. doi: 10.1375/ajgc.21.2.203

Larcombe, W., & Fethers, K. (2013). Schooling the blues? An investigation of factors associated with psychological distress among law students. University of New South Wales Law Journal, 36(2).

Larcombe, W., Finch, S., Sore, R., Murray, C. M., Kentish, S., Mulder, R. A., Baik, C., Toklatilidis, O. & Williams, D. (2015). Prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of psychological distress among students at an Australian university. Studies in Higher Education, 1-18., DOI: 10.1080/03075079.2014.966072.

Leahy, C. M., Peterson, R. F., Wilson, I. G., Newbury, J. W., Tonkin, A. L., & Turnbull, D. (2010). Distress levels and self-reported treatment rates for medicine, law, psychology and mechanical engineering tertiary students: cross-sectional study. Australian and New Zealand journal of psychiatry, 44(7), 608-615

Leonard, D., Metcalfe, J., Becker, R., & Evans, J. (2006). Review of literature on the impact of working context and support on the postgraduate research student learning experience. New York, NY: The Higher Education Academy.

Royal College of Psychiatrists. (2011). Mental Health of Students in Higher Education. College report CR166. London: (authors).

Schofield, M. J., O’Halloran, P., McLean, S. A., Forrester‐Knauss, C., & Paxton, S. J. (2016). Depressive symptoms among Australian university students: Who is at risk?. Australian Psychologist, 51(2), 135-144.

Slavin, S. J., Schindler, D. L., & Chibnall, J. T. (2014). Medical student mental health 3.0: improving student wellness through curricular changes. Academic Medicine, 89(4), 573-577.

Soh, N. L. W., Norgren, S., Lampe, L., Hunt, G. E., Malhi, G. S., & Walter, G. (2013). Mental distress in Australian medical students and its association with housing and travel time. Journal of Contemporary Medical Education, 1(3), 163-169.

Stallman, H. M. (2008). Prevalence of psychological distress in university students: Implications for service delivery. Australian Family Physician, 37(8), 673.

Stallman, H. M. (2010). Psychological distress in university students: A comparison with general population data. Australian Psychologist, 45(4), 249-257

Stallman, H. M. (2011). Embedding resilience within the tertiary curriculum: A feasibility study. Higher Education Research & Development, 30(2), 121-133. doi: 10.1080/07294360.2010.509763

Stallman, H. M. (2012). A qualitative evaluation of perceptions of the role of competition in the success and distress of law students, Higher Education Research & Development, 31(6), 891-904. DOI:10.1080/07294360.2012.655241.

Stallman, H. M., & Duffy, J. (in press). Beyond the curriculum: The well-being of law students within their broader environment. In J. Duffy, R. Field, & C. James (Eds.), Promoting law student and lawyer well-being in Australia and beyond. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing.

Stallman, H. M., & Hurst, C. P. (under review). Development and validation of the University Connectedness Scale.

Stallman, H. M., Lipsen, S., & Eisenberg, D. (in press). A population approach to mental health of university students. In J. Tanner (Ed.), Developing mental health in emerging adulthood: Oxford University Press.

Tang, S. & Ferguson, A. (2014). The possibility of wellbeing: Preliminary results from surveys of Australian professional legal education students. QUT Law Review, 14(1): 27-51.

Veness, B. (2013). The wicked side of university mental health. Report to the Winston Churchill Memorial Trust, Sydney, Australia.

Curriculum Design and Wellbeing

Angelo, T. (2012). Designing subjects for learning: practical research-based principles and guidelines. University teaching in focus. A learning-centred approach, 93-111.

Barnett, R. (2009). Knowing and becoming in the higher education curriculum. Studies in higher education, 34(4), 429-440.

Barnett demonstrates the importance of latter, especially as it changes the person’s sense of identity and relationship with the topic that they are learning.

Cousin, G. (2006). An introduction to threshold concepts. Planet (17), 4-5. doi:10.11120/plan.2006.00170004

Ferguson A. (2015) ‘Creating practice ready, well and professional law graduates’. Journal of Learning Design, 8(2), 22-37.

Gleeson, D. (2001). Science 101: A pilot program aimed at facilitation transition into Science at the University of Melbourne. In the First Year Experience Conference, Hawaii.

Gleeson, D., King, D., & Livett, M. (2012, August). Student Guided Transition Assistance. In Proceedings of The Australian Conference on Science and Mathematics Education (formerly UniServe Science Conference).

Su, Y. L., & Reeve, J. (2011). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of intervention programs designed to support autonomy. Educational Psychology Review, 23(1), 159-188.

Teaching Practice and Wellbeing

Angelo, T. (2012). Designing subjects for learning: practical research-based principles and guidelines. University teaching in focus. A learning-centred approach, 93-111.

Black, A. E., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The effects of instructors’ autonomy support and students’ autonomous motivation on learning organic chemistry: A self‐determination theory perspective. Science education, 84(6), 740-756.

Wijnia, L., Loyens, S. M., & Derous, E. (2011). Investigating effects of problem-based versus lecture-based learning environments on student motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(2), 101-113.

Webb, A. K., Wangmo, T., Ewen, H. H., Teaster, P. B., & Hatch, L. R. (2009). Peer and faculty mentoring for students pursuing a PhD in gerontology.Educational Gerontology, 35(12), 1089-1106.

Self-Determination Theory and Positive Psychology

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Creativity, fulfilment, and flow. TED: Ideas worth spreading. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fXIeFJCqsPs

Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 319-338.

Keyes, C. L. (2002). The mental health continuum: From languishing to flourishing in life. Journal of health and social behavior, 207-222.

Keyes, C. L. (Ed.). (2012). Mental well-being: International contributions to the study of positive mental health. Springer Science & Business Media.

Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2010). Self-determination theory and the relation of autonomy to self-regulatory processes and personality development. In R.H Hoyle (Ed.) Handbook of Personalty and Self-Regulation. Pp 169-191. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000a). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and wellbeing. American psychologist,55(1), 68.

Seligman, M. E. (2012). Chapter 1: What is well-being? Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-being (pp.5-29). New York: Simon & Schuster.

Sheldon, K. M., & Krieger, L. S. (2004). Does legal education have undermining effects on law students? Evaluating changes in motivation, values, and well‐being. Behavioral sciences & the law, 22(2), 261-286.

Sheldon, K. M., & Krieger, L. S. (2007). Understanding the negative effects of legal education on law students: A longitudinal test of self-determination theory.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(6), 883-897.

Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Deci, E. L. (2006). Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal contents in self-determination theory: Another look at the quality of academic motivation. Educational psychologist, 41(1), 19-31.

Mental Health

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

• The DSM5 is the American Psychiatric Association’s most recent classification of mental illnesses. It includes 23 clusters of illnesses (e.g., depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, and neurodevelopmental disorders). Within each cluster, and for each illness, the DSM5 includes comprehensive information about the diagnostic criteria (affective, behavioural, and cognitive symptoms), prevalence, development (including biological, cognitive, and environmental models), prognosis and comorbidity, and culture-related issues.

Casey, L., & Liang, R. P. (2014). Stress and Wellbeing in Australia survey 2014. Australian Psychology Society: Melbourne, Australia.

• Cited in 1.1: Mental Health in Higher Education and Research Snapshot 1.1

Cockshaw, W. D., & Shochet, I. (2010). The link between belongingness and depressive symptoms: An exploration in the workplace interpersonal context.Australian Psychologist, 45(4), 283-289.

• Cited in 1.3 Read More: MBRAC explained
• Cockshaw and Shochet investigated the relationship between workplace belongingness and depression and anxiety.
• They asked 125 employees at a disability services organisation to complete two scales approximating belongingness (organisational membership, and affective commitment) and the short version of the DASS.
• Depressive symptoms and anxiety symptoms were negatively correlated with the construct of belongingness.
• They conclude that a person’s sense of belonging to the workplace does appear to be related to their mental health, and thus warrants further attention.

Kessler, R. C., Andrews, G., Colpe L. J., et al. (2002). Short screening scales to monitor population prevalence and trends in non-specific psychological distress.Psychological Medicine, 32, 959-976.

• Cited in 1.1 Read More: Defining mental health and wellbeing
• Reports the development and testing of the Kessler-10 scale, and Kessler-6 scale. These scales identify levels of psychological distress.
• Both the K10 and K6 were found to have good psychometric properties including validity and discriminant reliability. In particular, the K10 and K6 could discriminate between samples of people with and without clinically diagnosed mental illnesses, especially for those individuals with low scores on the global assessment functioning scale (a measure within the DSMIV).
• The brevity, reliability, and validity make these two scales appropriate measures of psychological distress among the general population. The authors encourage researchers to include the scales in community and clinical studies, in order to establish more readily comparable findings.

Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour research and therapy, 33(3), 335-343.

• Cited in 1.1 Read More: Defining mental health and wellbeing
• This study compares the psychometric properties of the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scales (DASS) to the well-know and widely used Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), with a sample of 717 psychology students.
• The DASS yielded good reliability and validity. It showed better separation in factor loadings than the BDI and BAI.

Scott, J., Leboyer, M., Hickie, I., Berk, M., Kapczinski, F., Frank, E., … & McGorry, P. (2013). Clinical staging in psychiatry: a cross-cutting model of diagnosis with heuristic and practical value. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 202(4), 243-245.

• Present their clinical staging model of schizophrenia, arguing that a clinical mental illness can exist along a continuum rather than a discrete category.
• The clinical staging model of schizophrenia passes through five phases, from stage 0 (latency, or at risk) through to stage IV (late or end-stage).
• This paper is relevant for our project in that it acknowledges a continuum of mental health; however this specific continuum refers only to schizophrenia and not to sub-clinical mental health difficulties. The majority of students who experience psychological distress without mental illness would be located at stage 0 in Scott et al.’s continuum.

 

Higher Education

Biggs, J. (2003). Aligning teaching for constructing learning. Higher Education Academy. Retrieved from: https://www.heacademy.ac.uk/sites/default/files/resources/id477_aligning_ teaching_for_constructing_learning.pdf

• Cited in 2.2 Read More: Constructive alignment in brief
• In this paper, Biggs explains the central role of constructive alignment in developing teaching and learning activities.
• Biggs provides brief summaries of constructive alignment and intended learning outcomes. He describes how constructive alignment influences the students’ learning experience.

Baik, C., Naylor, R., & Arkoudis, S. (2015). The first year experience in Australian universities: Findings from two decades, 1994-2014. Melbourne Centre for the Study of Education, The University of Melbourne: Melbourne, Australia.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 1.2
• Reports findings from a national survey of first year students, undertaken by Melbourne CHSE every five years since 1994.
• In regards to deferring, 19% wanted to defer in their first year. Reasons for wanting to discontinue study included: fear of failure, financial reasons, wanting to change course, physical health, work commitments, family commitments, found employment, and university not being what they expected, with some differences between students with low and high ATAR scores. (pp. 68-79)
• “While there are various reasons for students considering discontinuing in 2014, the majority of students (72%) cited emotional health as an important reason in considering deferring. This represents a sharp rise from 56 per cent of students in 2009, and may be the result of growing public awareness of mental and emotional health issues among young people” (p.2)

Graduate Careers Australia and the Social Research Centre [GRA & SRC] (2015). 2014 University Experience Survey National Report. [authors]. ISBN 978-1-74361-508-9

• Cited in Research Snapshot 1.2 
• This document reports the findings of the University Experience Survey, an online survey that asked 99,112 undergraduate students from all 40 Australian universities about their experiences.
• The survey focuses on five areas of the student experience: skill development learner engagement, teaching quality, student support, and learning resources. Two further areas of interest were quality of entire experience and quality of teaching.
• Marginally higher proportions of students were satisfied with these areas of their university life than in the pilot study in 2013.

Lunsford, L. (2012). Doctoral advising or mentoring? Effects on student outcomes. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 20(2), 251-270.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 3.3 
• Lunsford surveyed 277 doctoral supervisors about their approach to mentoring sPhD students.
• The relationship between mentoring and outcome differed across discipline, and mentoring type (psychosocial mentoring vs career mentoring).

Maclellan, E. (2004). Assessment for learning. The RoutledgeFalmer Reader in Higher Education, 26(4), 85.

• Cited in 3.2: Start Here 
• This study investigates the relationship between assessment (theory and practice) and students’ learning strategies, with students and staff at a university in the UK.
• Teaching staff favoured formative assessment over summative assessment, yet students said that assessment was primarily summative, focused on grading and ranking, and was usually non-authentic.

Margolis, E. (2001). The hidden curriculum in higher education. Psychology Press.

• Cited in 2.1: How Curriculum Design Affects Student Wellbeing 
• This book demonstrates how the values and attitudes of the system (teacher, school, society) produce race, class, and gender hierarchies and reproduce conservative ideology.

McAuliffe, B., Hargreaves, D., Winter, A.J., & Chadwick, G. (2009). Does pedagogy still rule? Australasian Journal of Engineering Education, 15(1) 13-18.

• The authors discuss and compare three theories of learning: pedagogy, andragogy, and heutagogy, to argue that pedagogy is still the most applicable theory of learning for higher education contexts.

McAuliffe, M., Martin, P., Cameron, L. & Hankinson, J. (2015). Embedding metacognitive skills in spatial design. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 2(2). Retrieved from http://www.ijicc.net/

McInnis, C. (2001). Signs of disengagement? The changing undergraduate experience in Australian universities. Inaugural Professorial Lecture. University of Melbourne.

• This paper investigates the shift in student engagement at university relative to shifts in employment commitments.

Meyer, J., & Land, R. (2003). Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge: Linkages to ways of thinking and practising within the disciplines (pp. 412-424). Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh.

• Cited in 3.2: Start Here and 2.2 Read More: Threshold concepts in brief
• This paper discusses two seminal concepts for learning – Jan Meyer’s “threshold concepts”, and Perkins’ “troublesome knowledge”.
• The paper sits within a broader Teaching and Learning Research Program, across the Universities of Coventry, Durhan and Edinburgh.

Naylor, R., Chakravarti, S., & Baik, C. (2016). Differing motivations and requirements in PhD student cohorts: A case study. Issues in Educational Research, 26(2), 351-367.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 3.3 
• Naylor et al. ran focus groups with 29 science PhD students (14 with clinical backgrounds and 15 with science backgrounds) about their expectations coming into the PhD and their actual experiences.
• They found some differences in students’ expectations: PhD students with a clinical background tended to see the PhD as a step towards career advancement, a break from the clinic, and were supported by mentors in applying; PhD students with a science background tended to see the PhD as an opportunity to “make a difference” and personal development.
• Students from both backgrounds said that their relationship with their supervisor was important: supervisors were an important source of support, but also a source of distress if the supervision was not adequate, or if they had a poor relationship with their supervisor.

Norton, J. (2011). “Getting to the end”: Psychological factors influencing research higher degree completion. Journal of the Australia and New Zealand Student Services Association, 38, 1-9.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 3.3 
• Examines issues associated with RHD non-completion and delay (Especially but not exclusively PhD)
• Despite a proliferation of resources offering advice, guidelines, and “promising practices” around RHD supervision, very few studies provide clear empirical evidence for the relationship between these factors and attrition or retention. Norton argues for a multifocal approach, focusing on:
• Institutional factors (disciplinary differences, guidelines for candidates, access to resources and support groups, sense of belonging),
• supervisor-student relationship (frequency of meetings, match or mismatch between student and supervisor, clarity of expectations);
• Special elements of the RHD experience are likely to exacerbate issues related to mental health: financial strain, time pressures, lack of faculty contact, focus on self-learning (limiting students’ willingness to ask for help), excessive workload, sense of incapacity, loneliness and isolation, procrastination.
• Personal issues (financial strain, motivation, demographics, life events, and procrastination.
• Procrastination has been associated with test-anxiety, depression, perfectionism, low self-esteem, and low self-efficacy. As such, several researchers advocate for the need to identify and address procrastination early. Some suggestions are to use psycho-education with students identified as procrastinating, or teach students cognitive restructuring, stress management, and techniques to reduce cognitive and affective factors associated with the procrastination. Emotional support such as encouragement has also been shown to be effective in reducing tendencies to procrastinate.

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). Motivation and classroom learning. In W.M. Reynolds, & G.E. Miller (Eds), Handbook of Psychology: Educational Psychology, Vol. 7. (pp. 103-122). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 3.2 
• In this book chapter, Pintrich outline the relationship between student cognition and classroom learning with expectancies, values, and affect.
• The latter three are motivational components, each considered important for students’ cognition, learning, and classroom outcomes.

Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to teach in higher education. London: Routledge.

• Cited in 2.2 Read More: Constructive alignment in brief
• Ramsden’s seminal book introduces theories and practices of teaching in higher education.
• In section 1, he outlines learning from the students’ perspective to establish the principles of effective teaching in higher education.
• In section 2, he applies these principles to four elements of teaching: organising content, selecting teaching methods, assessing outcomes, and evaluation.

Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to teach in higher education (2^nd Edn). London: Routledge.

• Cited in 2.2 Start Here
• This updated version of Ramsden’s (1992) expresses the same underlying principles in a modern context of massification, online learning, and student diversity.

Satariyan, A., Getenet, S., Gube, J., & Muhammad, Y. (2015). Exploring supervisory support in an Australian university: perspectives of doctoral students in an education faculty. Journal of the Australia and New Zealand Student Services Association.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 3.3
• Sataritan et al. used online surveys and follow-up interviews to ask PhD students about their experiences and relationships with their supervisors.
• The PhD students wanted supervisory teams in the same discipline as their PhD, and that could offer research direction, methodology, emotional support, and administrative procedures.

Schraw, G., & Lehman, S. (2001). Situational interest: A review of the literature and directions for future research. Educational Psychology Review,13(1), 23-52. [when learning tasks are designed around students’ interests]

• Cited in Research Snapshot 3.2 
• In this paper, the authors review literature to distinguish situational interest (context-specific) from personal interest (enduring) in relation to learning.
• They identify two themes of personal interest: latent interest (long-term, intrinsic) and actualized interest (topic-specific, stimulates challenge/engagement); and three themes of situational interest: text based interest, task-based interest, and knowledge-based interest.

Sharpe, L. (2008). Defining the term ‘threshold concepts’. Unpublished document, Flinders University. Retrieved from: www.flinders.edu.au/Teaching_and_Learning_Files/…/threshold.doc

• Cited in 2.2 Read More: Threshold concepts in brief
• This unpublished document provides a brief description of threshold concepts, with some examples from different disciplines. The document is intended for undergraduate students. 

 

Mental Health and Higher Education

Australian Government. (1992). Disability Discrimination Act 1992. Attorney General’s Department.

• The Disability Discrimination Act 1992 outlines the definition of disability, specifies unlawful discrimination in the workplace, education and other areas, and discrimination involving harassment.
• According to the Act, disability refers to total or partial loss of the person’s body or bodily or mental functions; as well as disease, illness, or malformation that limit the person’s learning ability, thought processes, emotions, or judgement.
• The act also states that it is unlawful for an education authority to deny or limit the students’ access to learning; and unlawful for an education provider to exclude students with disabilities from participating in the course.

Baik, C., Naylor, R., & Arkoudis, S. (2015). The first year experience in Australian universities: Findings from two decades, 1994-2014. Melbourne Centre for the Study of Education, The University of Melbourne: Melbourne, Australia.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 1.2
• Reports findings from a national survey of first year students, undertaken by Melbourne CHSE every five years since 1994.
• In regards to deferring, 19% wanted to defer in their first year. Reasons for wanting to discontinue study included: fear of failure, financial reasons, wanting to change course, physical health, work commitments, family commitments, found employment, and university not being what they expected, with some differences between students with low and high ATAR scores. (pp. 68-79)
• “While there are various reasons for students considering discontinuing in 2014, the majority of students (72%) cited emotional health as an important reason in considering deferring. This represents a sharp rise from 56 per cent of students in 2009, and may be the result of growing public awareness of mental and emotional health issues among young people” (p.2)

Bather, M. (2013). Civil engineering students; What stops them engaging: Motivation, work or family?. Journal for Education in the Built Environment, 8(1), 1-15. doi: 10.11120/jebe.2013.00006

• Surveyed 40 engineering students (21 full-time students and 19 part-time students) at the University of Bolton, UK, about their motivation to study and weekly activities.
• Students were motivated to study. Full time students spent 37% of their time studying ant 24% working; Part-time students spent 18% of their time studying and 44% of their time working. Students with children spent nearly 3 times longer with family than students without children, regardless of whether they were full-time or part-time students.
• Concludes that the time needed to learn deeply was not available to most students, due to family or work commitments (or both). He recommends that universities can support time-pressured students by offering stable, condensed timetables, flexible systems, scheduling repeated work, and discussion the level of effort required within each subject.

Bathurst, L., & Grove, J. (2000). Damned if you do. Damned if you don’t. Students’ experiences of disclosing a mental health disorder. Pathways IV, Canberra, ACT, 5-8.

• Interviewed 17 university and TAFE students about their experiences of disclosure of mental illness in light of their “Day to day interactions with their higher education environments” Their findings are divided into five themes:
• Some illnesses are better than others – sometimes students preferred to falsify their symptoms as other illnesses, because their real illness was “too scary” or misunderstood (E.g., claustrophobia instead of schizophrenia)
• Stigma, stereotypes, ignorance and discrimination – the students describe fears of people finding out about their illnesses, often because their illnesses are misunderstood or feared. The authors argue that misconceptions around mental illness are often due to negative stereotypes, lack of familiarity with the illness, and general ignorance.
• Reactions by staff – although experiences of academic and personal support were positive, the behaviour and reactions of academic staff in general was concerning (e.g., insensitivity, hostility, disbelief, breaches of confidentiality, and minimisation of the illness). The authors suggest that this might often just be because people don’t know how to react or respond to mental illness. The effect of these reactions for the student, however, is usually negative.
• Disclosing on a need to know basis – rather than disclosing early (and risking discrimination in selection processes for subjects), students tended to wait until their illness was affecting their academic work before seeking help. The authors comment that the decision to disclose is complex, tied up with issues of self-perception and their perception of the illness, and also related to perceptions of competence and control over the illness.
• Super-student, guilt, and competence – many symptoms of mental illness can be misinterpreted as laziness, emotionality, or disengagement. Students’ decision to not disclose was often related to wanting to prove that they were in fact the opposite of those descriptors (they were “super-students”). Some interviewees resented the idea of using special consideration because it did not reflect a students’ “real ability”.

Bexley, E., Daroesman, S., Arkoudis, S., & James, R. (2013). University student finances in 2012: A study of the financial circumstances of domestic and international students in Australia’s universities. Canberra: Universities Australia. Retrieved from https://www.universitiesaustralia.edu.au/news/commissioned-studies/Australian-University-Student-Finances-in-2012/Australian-University-Student-Finances-in-2012#.Vt4qmqYsY59

• Cited in Research Snapshot 1.2 
• This report outlines the financial circumstances of Australian university students in 2012. At present, it is the latest iteration of a 30-year study of Australian students’ financial circumstances (Reporting every five years).
• The findings depict a diverse student population, with more heterogeneous circumstances than in earlier iterations of this study. This diversity instead suggests an increasing gap between those with and without financial means.
• Compared to 2006, more students relied on family allowances, but also more students relied on centrelink. Fewer students were seeking employment, but those who did worked longer hours. Income had increased substantially, but more students stated that they regularly go without food or other necessities because they cannot afford them, and more students were worried about their financial situation.

Brett, M., Harvey, A., Funston, A., Spicer, R., & Wood, A. (2016). The role of inherent requirement statements in Australian Universities. Final report to national Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education (NCSEHE). La Trobe University: Victoria, Australia.

• The report presents the first stage of a research program investigating the prevalence, accessibility and form of inherent requirement statements within Australian university sector (e.g., statements such as “Ability to work constructively in a diverse and changing academic and clinical environment”).
• Initial findings indicate tensions between simultaneous and conflicting aims of universities to: “increase enrolments by promoting the participation of students with a disability; provide transparency for all prospective students on essential course requirements and skills; ensure that reasonable adjustments are made for enrolled students as required by legislation; promote the employability of all students; and satisfy the demands of professional and registration bodies, all in an increasingly complex and competitive environment”. (p. 3)
• The study has strong implications for the increasing population of university students with disabilities, as well as employment law, educational standards, and professional registration requirements.

Cvetkovski, S., Reavley, N. J., & Jorm, A. F. (2012). The prevalence and correlates of psychological distress in Australian tertiary students compared to their community peers. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 46(5), 457-467.

• Investigated the relationship between psychological distress, type of tertiary study (university, vocational education and training (VET), combined, or not-studying), and socio-demographic characteristics (finances, etc).
• Drew on various national surveys to determine this relationship, including the 2007 Household Income and Labour Dynamics Survey (HILDA), the 2007-08 National Health Survey (NHS), and the 2007 National Survey of Mental Health and Well­being (NSMHWB). All surveys had used the Kessler 10 scale as a measure of psychological distress.
• Younger university students, and students with financial problems, were more likely to experience high levels of distress than other groups.

Dyrbye, L. N., Thomas, M. R., & Shanafelt, T. D. (2006). Systematic review of depression, anxiety, and other indicators of psychological distress among US and Canadian medical students. Academic Medicine, 81(4), 354-373.

• Investigated rates of depression, anxiety, and burnout among U.S and Canadian medical students.
• Conducted a systematic review of existing literature, identifying 40 articles about medical student psychological distress, and no studies about burnout.
• Most studies report a high prevalence of anxiety and depression among medical students, some also report a higher level of distress for women; very few studies offer data about the cause of the distress or its impact on academic performance.
• The authors call for more studies that focus on the personal and academic causes and consequences for students’ experiences of psychological distress.

Erdur-Baker, O., Aberson, C. L., Barrow, J. C., & Draper, M. R. (2006). Nature and severity of college students’ psychological concerns: A comparison of clinical and nonclinical national samples. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 37(3), 317.

• The aim of this study was to establish a base line or standard for comparison of American students’ mental health issues.
• The authors drew on three samples: two were clinical (3,049 students in 1991; and 4,483 students in 1997) and one was non clinical (2,718 students in 1995).
• Findings support the claim that college students’ mental health problems have increased over time. This increase is most evident when comparing the later non clinical sample to the two clinical samples.

Kerr, H. (2013). Mental Distress Survey Overview. MRS Evidence Matters: United Kingdom. Retrieved from: http://www.nus.org.uk/Global/Campaigns/ 20130517%20Mental% 20Distress%20Survey%20%20Overview.pdf

• A presentation of research by the National Union of Students in the UK, about mental health issues among students, and the support services offered to students with mental health issues.
• Approximately 1,300 students completed an online survey.
• During the time they had spent at university, most students said they had experienced stress (80%), 55% reported experiencing anxiety, and 49% reported experiencing depressed feelings.
• These more common experiences were not frequent occurrences: the proportion of students experiencing these once a month or less often were: for stress, 66%; for anxiety, 59%; and for depressed feelings, 54%. The most frequent (but less common) experiences were more alarming: at least half of the students experienced the following once a week or more often: suicidal thoughts (68%); thoughts of self-harm (65%); paranoia (56%); hopelessness (51%); numbness/lack of emotion (50%).
• Common supports were friends (58%), followed by family (45%) and GP (15%).

Khawaja, N., & Stallman, H. M. (2011). Understanding the coping strategies of international students: A qualitative approach. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 21(2), 203-224. doi: 10.1375/ajgc.21.2.203

Larcombe, W., & Fethers, K. (2013). Schooling the blues? An investigation of factors associated with psychological distress among law students. University of New South Wales Law Journal, 36(2).

• Cited in Research Snapshot 1.3
• In this paper, Lacombe and Fethers report on the impact of an approach to student wellbeing adopted by the Melbourne Law School at the University of Melbourne.
• They describe the methods adopted and the relationship between demographic and non-demographic factors on students’ self-rated symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress.

Larcombe, W., Finch, S., Sore, R., Murray, C. M., Kentish, S., Mulder, R. A., Baik, C., Toklatilidis, O. & Williams, D. (2015). Prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of psychological distress among students at an Australian university. Studies in Higher Education, 1-18., DOI: 10.1080/03075079.2014.966072.

• Cited in 1.1: Mental Health in Higher Education and Research Snapshot 1.1
• Investigated the prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of psychological distress among university students.
• 5,061 students from six faculties (Law, Engineering, Science, Arts, Veterinary science, and Biomedicine) completed the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales(DASS-21) and various questions about their socio-demographic information.
• 26% of the sample reported severe or extremely severe levels on at least one of the three scales (depressive symptoms, anxiety, and stress). This prevalence is substantially higher than an age-matched population study.
• The three subscales (depression, anxiety, and stress) were each associated with different patterns of correlates:
  • Students with severe or extremely severe levels of DASS depressive symptoms were most likely to be: studying a Bachelor of Arts, or studying 4 hours or fewer per week, or offering family care for 10 – 14 hour per week.
  • Students with severe or extremely severe levels of DASS anxiety were most likely to be: younger than 25, or offering family care for 10 – 14 hour per week.
  • Students with severe or extremely severe levels of DASS stress were most likely to be: studying Veterinary Science, or offering family care for 10 – 14 hour per week, or reporting their gender as “other”, or working 20 hours per week or longer.

Leahy, C. M., Peterson, R. F., Wilson, I. G., Newbury, J. W., Tonkin, A. L., & Turnbull, D. (2010). Distress levels and self-reported treatment rates for medicine, law, psychology and mechanical engineering tertiary students: cross-sectional study. Australian and New Zealand journal of psychiatry, 44(7), 608-615

• Investigated the psychological distress of undergraduate students in relation to the general population and specific disciplines.
• 955 students from Engineering, Law, Medicine and Psychology completed the Kessler 10.
• Almost half of the sample (48%) reported high or very high levels of psychological distress on the Kessler-10 scale; this prevalence is 4.4 times higher than among age-matched peers.
• Students in Engineering and Law had significantly higher levels of psychological distress than students in Psychology and Medicine.

Leonard, D., Metcalfe, J., Becker, R., & Evans, J. (2006). Review of literature on the impact of working context and support on the postgraduate research student learning experience. New York, NY: The Higher Education Academy.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 3.3
• Conducted a literature review of 120 studies about the PhD experience, with particular attention to the use of the viva voce as a learning activity.
• The importance of per support was identified in one-third of the papers.
• The authors make suggestions for policy in graduate research and higher education.

Royal College of Psychiatrists. (2011). Mental Health of Students in Higher Education. College report CR166. London: (authors).

• This report follows on from a 2003 UK national report about the state of students’ mental health (especially mental disorders). Findings incude:
• Students are coming from increasingly diverse circumstances, social groups, and backgrounds. Changes in social circumstances (means of financial support, family breakdown) and broader social issues (recession) are all impacting upon students’ mental health. The report is eerily similar to reports about circumstances for Australian students (e.g., Bexley et al., 2013).
• An acknowledgement that the university as a system plays an important role in promoting positive mental health. Not only in accommodating mental health services, but also considering the ways in which the setting itself might promote or hinder positive mental health experiences.
• All universities have counselling and mental health services, however the demand on these services is increasing.
• Mental health (mental disorder) is now recognised as part of the Discrimination Act. Further, the DDA also now includes education as a setting that has an institution that has a duty of care to students with disabilities, and must take reasonable measures to support their learning experience.

Schofield, M. J., O’Halloran, P., McLean, S. A., Forrester‐Knauss, C., & Paxton, S. J. (2016). Depressive symptoms among Australian university students: Who is at risk?. Australian Psychologist, 51(2), 135-144.

• Cited in 1.1 Mental Health in Higher Education and Research Snapshot 1.1
• 800 students completed the DASS and questions about their demography, mental health, psychosocial health, and use of psychological services.
• 39.5% of the sample reported mild to extremely severe symptoms on the DASS. Lifestyle factors (e.g., binge drinking, less physical activity, loneliness) were predictors of variance in DASS scores, but demographics were not.

Slavin, S. J., Schindler, D. L., & Chibnall, J. T. (2014). Medical student mental health 3.0: improving student wellness through curricular changes. Academic Medicine, 89(4), 573-577.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 2.1 
• This paper presents a paradigm for improving medical student mental health. It describes a preclinical curricular change program implemented through the Office of Curricular Affairs at the Saint Louis University School of Medicine.
• Changes to course content, contact hours, scheduling, grading, electives, learning communities, and required resilience/mindfulness experiences were associated with significantly lower levels of depression symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and stress, and significantly higher levels of community cohesion, in medical students who participated in the expanded wellness program compared with those who preceded its implementation.

Soh, N. L. W., Norgren, S., Lampe, L., Hunt, G. E., Malhi, G. S., & Walter, G. (2013). Mental distress in Australian medical students and its association with housing and travel time. Journal of Contemporary Medical Education, 1(3), 163-169.

• Investigated the relationship between students’ psychological distress, accommodation, and travel time to university.
• University of Sydney medical students completed an online survey with the Kessler 10 and questions about their living circumstances and travel to university.
• Students were more likely to report high levels of distress if they were: female, younger, renting (compared with students who lived with their parents or owned their own homes), or travelled for longer periods of time to university.
• The authors argue that living circumstances and travel to university are issues that universities and other services can address (as opposed to gender and age).

Stallman, H. M. (2008). Prevalence of psychological distress in university students: Implications for service delivery. Australian Family Physician, 37(8), 673.

• Investigated levels of psychological distress and help seeking for that distress among university students attending the university health clinic.
• 384 students attending the clinic completed the Kessler 10.
• Substantially more students reported high levels of distress (on the K10) than in the general population. Although this might be related to the method of recruitment, only one-third of those who had high levels of distress sought help for their while distress at the clinic.

Stallman, H. M. (2010). Psychological distress in university students: A comparison with general population data. Australian Psychologist, 45(4), 249-257

• Cited in 1.1:  Mental Health in Higher Education and Research Snapshot 1.1, and 1.1 Read More: Defining mental health and wellbeing
• The study reported in this paper aimed to provide epidemiological evidence of the mental health issues among university students in comparison to the general population.
• 6,479 students from two universities completed the Kessler 10. The estimated prevalence of mental health problems was significantly larger than among the general population.
• Distress was associated with disability and lower academic achievement.
• Predictors of distress were: studying full time, financial stress, being female, and being aged between 18 and 34.

Stallman, H. M. (2011). Embedding resilience within the tertiary curriculum: A feasibility study. Higher Education Research & Development, 30(2), 121-133. doi: 10.1080/07294360.2010.509763

Stallman, H. M. (2012). A qualitative evaluation of perceptions of the role of competition in the success and distress of law students, Higher Education Research & Development, 31(6), 891-904. DOI:10.1080/07294360.2012.655241.

Stallman, H. M., & Duffy, J. (in press). Beyond the curriculum: The well-being of law students within their broader environment. In J. Duffy, R. Field, & C. James (Eds.), Promoting law student and lawyer well-being in Australia and beyond. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing.

Stallman, H. M., & Hurst, C. P. (under review). Development and validation of the University Connectedness Scale.

Stallman, H. M., Lipsen, S., & Eisenberg, D. (in press). A population approach to mental health of university students. In J. Tanner (Ed.), Developing mental health in emerging adulthood: Oxford University Press.

Tang, S. & Ferguson, A. (2014). The possibility of wellbeing: Preliminary results from surveys of Australian professional legal education students. QUT Law Review, 14(1): 27-51.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 2.1 
• This paper evaluates the effectiveness of ANU’s legal workshop programme.
• Students graduates from the programme with lower levels of psychological distress.

Veness, B. (2013). The wicked side of university mental health. Report to the Winston Churchill Memorial Trust, Sydney, Australia.

 

Curriculum Design and Wellbeing

Angelo, T. (2012). Designing subjects for learning: practical research-based principles and guidelines. University teaching in focus. A learning-centred approach, 93-111.

• Cited in 2.2: Start Here and 3.2: Just good teaching?
• This book chapter argues that careful and considered subject design can improve teaching and learning experiences.
• Angelo’s model for subject design draws on other well-established models, such as constructive alignment and backward design.
• His chapter is framed around 10 first-order questions that need to be addressed before designing a course. These include the purpose of the course, its fit within the degree, the target audience and intended learning.

Barnett, R. (2009). Knowing and becoming in the higher education curriculum. Studies in higher education, 34(4), 429-440.

• Cited in 2.1: How Curriculum Design Affects Student Wellbeing  
• Barnett argues that teachers need to be aware of two distinct elements of learning: knowledge acquisition and student development (being and knowing, coming to know something).
• He argues curriculum is more than just what we teach (knowledge acquisition), but how we teach it (how students come to know things).

Barnett demonstrates the importance of latter, especially as it changes the person’s sense of identity and relationship with the topic that they are learning.

Cousin, G. (2006). An introduction to threshold concepts. Planet (17), 4-5. doi:10.11120/plan.2006.00170004

• Cited in 2.2 Read More: Threshold concepts in brief 
• This paper provides an introductory guide to threshold concepts. Although our fact sheet was adapted from this guide, the guide itself includes more detail about how the concept of ‘threshold concept’ was developed, and the state of liminality (an unstable state of transition, which the learner experiences while they are still unsure of the threshold concept).

Ferguson A. (2015) ‘Creating practice ready, well and professional law graduates’. Journal of Learning Design, 8(2), 22-37.

• In this paper, Ferguson outlines a suggested curriculum for law teachers to use in their efforts to help students become ethical, successful, well-rounded law practitioners.

Gleeson, D. (2001). Science 101: A pilot program aimed at facilitation transition into Science at the University of Melbourne. In the First Year Experience Conference, Hawaii.

• This paper reports the development and pilot of a program aimed at first year science students at the University of Melbourne.
• The aims of the program were to: provide new students with skills needed for first year science, and create early links for first year students and faculty staff.
• The program had two components: the first comprised three one-hour sessions; the second comprised ongoing smaller study groups.

Gleeson, D., King, D., & Livett, M. (2012, August). Student Guided Transition Assistance. In Proceedings of The Australian Conference on Science and Mathematics Education (formerly UniServe Science Conference).

• This presentation reported a review of a program for first year students developed in 2000 (Gleeson, 2001).
• The program had changed substantially over the decade between the two papers. Major changes to the overall university curriculum created an opportunity for the in-depth and systematic review reported here.
• The program had changed substantially throughout the decade, and was expected to continue to evolve as students’ and faculty’ needs changed.

Su, Y. L., & Reeve, J. (2011). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of intervention programs designed to support autonomy. Educational Psychology Review, 23(1), 159-188.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 3.2 
• This study reviewed empirical research to investigate the effectiveness of training intervention programs for building people’s autonomy.
• The more effective programs were those that: were brief, trained multiple elements of autonomy, and focused on skill-based activities.

 

Teaching Practice and Wellbeing

Angelo, T. (2012). Designing subjects for learning: practical research-based principles and guidelines. University teaching in focus. A learning-centred approach, 93-111.

• Cited in 2.2: Start Here and 3.2: Just good teaching?
• This book chapter argues that careful and considered subject design can improve teaching and learning experiences.
• Angelo’s model for subject design draws on other well-established models, such as constructive alignment and backward design.
• His chapter is framed around 10 first-order questions that need to be addressed before designing a course. These include the purpose of the course, its fit within the degree, the target audience and intended learning.

Black, A. E., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The effects of instructors’ autonomy support and students’ autonomous motivation on learning organic chemistry: A self‐determination theory perspective. Science education, 84(6), 740-756.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 3.2 
• This study used self-determination theory to investigate the relationship between students’ self-regulation and perceptions of autonomy support with adjustment and academic performance.
• They report that enrolling for autonomous reasons contributed to lower anxiety and lower grade-focused performance goals, and perceptions of autonomy support contributed to self-regulation, perceived competence, and decreases in anxiety.

Wijnia, L., Loyens, S. M., & Derous, E. (2011). Investigating effects of problem-based versus lecture-based learning environments on student motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(2), 101-113.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 3.2 
• This study investigates undergraduate students’ motivation in problem-based learning and lecture-based environments.
• Focus groups after the problem-based classes revealed that students found collaboration motivating, but also found uncertainty and controlling elements de-motivating.
• The authors conclude that PBL is not always associated with better motivation, and that learning activities must be appropriate for the task.

Webb, A. K., Wangmo, T., Ewen, H. H., Teaster, P. B., & Hatch, L. R. (2009). Peer and faculty mentoring for students pursuing a PhD in gerontology.Educational Gerontology, 35(12), 1089-1106.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 3.3 
• Webb eta l. surveyed 54 current and alumni PhD students and 39 faculty members about the benefits and limitations of their mentoring system.
• Informal mentoring from peers were seen as useful for social support and advice, whereas faculty mentors were useful for career direction and developing skills.

Self-Determination Theory and Positive Psychology

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Creativity, fulfilment, and flow. TED: Ideas worth spreading. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fXIeFJCqsPs

• In this TED presentation, Csikszentmihalyi discusses his personal and professional life and his seminal work on the concept of “flow”.
• Flow is a state of complete engagement with a task. People who experience states of flow often describe being so absorbed in the task that they do not notice time passing, or other things happening around them.
• Many motivational psychologists consider flow as an ideal state of intrinsic motivation with a task. At the same time, it is neither safe nor healthy to remain in a continual state of flow.

Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 319-338.

• Cited in 1.3 Student Life in the 21^st Century, 1.3 Read More: MBRAC Explained, Research Snapshot 1.3, and Research Snapshot 3.2 
• The authors of this paper present self-determination theory in terms of the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and wellbeing.
• They argue that the processes underlying goal pursuits are associated with different degrees of the three needs (competence, autonomy, and relatedness).

Keyes, C. L. (2002). The mental health continuum: From languishing to flourishing in life. Journal of health and social behavior, 207-222.

• Introduces a positive psychology approach to mental health that locates every person’s state of mental health along a continuum with positive mental health (flourishing, state of wellbeing) at one end and the absence of positive mental health (languishing or mental illness) at the other end.
• Using a previously collected data set, demonstrated a relatively normal distribution of mental health, with approx.. 14% ‘flourishing’, 56% moderately healthy, 12% languishing, and 14%with diagnosable depression.
• Demonstrated key features of flourishing/moderate health and languishing/depression that fit with pre-conceived ideas about these states of health: e.g., l languishing and depression were associated with psychosocial impairment; and flourishing and moderate health were associated with superior psychosocial functioning.
• Keyes’ model applies to this project insofar as it demonstrates a continuum of mental health in which positive mental health is associated with superior psychological and emotional functioning. This approach to mental health emphasizes the benefits of improving one’s mental health instead of pathologising mental health.

Keyes, C. L. (Ed.). (2012). Mental well-being: International contributions to the study of positive mental health. Springer Science & Business Media.

• Keyes’ edited book includes chapters showing evidence of wellbeing in young people and adults across a wide variety of countries (Australia, Africa, The Netherlands, South Korea, U.K., Iran).
• Together, the chapters provide strong evidence for the inverse relationship between measures of wellbeing and mental illness – in particular, depression. They also provide evidence of the positive association between wellbeing and other positive outcomes including economic outcomes, physical health, and positive social networks and resilience.
• The chapters also provide strong evidence for a pattern described by Professor Johanna Wyn in the video in our first module, in which societies (or even individuals) with easy access to education tend to have higher quality of life or personal wellbeing. However, as per Mental Health Issues Among University Students in our first module, this pattern is the inverse for university students.

Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2010). Self-determination theory and the relation of autonomy to self-regulatory processes and personality development. In R.H Hoyle (Ed.) Handbook of Personalty and Self-Regulation. Pp 169-191. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK.

• Cited in 1.3 Read More: MBRAC explained 
• This chapter discusses how autonomy has been defined in various philosophical traditions, before explaining it within the context of self-determination theory.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000a). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 1.3
• This article is one of a suite of articles by Ryan, Deci, and their colleagues about self-determination theory and the three psychological needs (seehttp://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/ for more papers about SDT).

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and wellbeing. American psychologist,55(1), 68.

• Cited in 1.3: Student Life in the 21^st Century and 1.3 Read More, and 1.1 Read More: Defining mental health and wellbeing
• This article is one of a suite of articles by Ryan, Deci, and their colleagues about self-determination theory and the three psychological needs (seehttp://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/ for more papers about SDT).
• In this article, Ryan and Deci describe the assumptions of Self Determination Theory:
  1. Humans have an innate tendency towards intrinsic motivation, as evidenced by behaviours such as effort, self-motivation, engagement, and commitment to tasks being normative experiences rather than exceptional;
  2. This state of intrinsic motivation is conducive to experiences of optimal development and wellbeing.

• This innate tendency towards intrinsic motivation is not automatic. It can be enhanced or undermined by several factors in the person’s surroundings. Three experiences in particular enhance experiences of intrinsic motivation and wellbeing: experiencing competence, relatedness, and autonomy.
• The paper also describes in detail the different experiences of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, and self-regulation of intrinsic motivation, and how experiencing competence, autonomy, and relatedness can enhance intrinsic motivation.

Seligman, M. E. (2012). Chapter 1: What is well-being? Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-being (pp.5-29). New York: Simon & Schuster.

• Cited in 1.1 Read More: Defining mental health and wellbeing and Research Snapshot 2.1
• Seligman’s most recent book draws on the body of his work as a positive psychologist. Whilst his earlier book argues for the merit of positive psychology, this book accepts positive psychology as an established field, outlining the theoretical underpinnings and empirical evidence around wellbeing.
• In his section titled “The elements of wellbeing” (pp. 15-18), Seligman outlines his own five-dimensional model of wellbeing. The model is called PERMA, which is an acronym for the five dimensions: Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment. These last three approximate the three psychological needs in SDT (relatedness, autonomy, and competence, respectively).

Sheldon, K. M., & Krieger, L. S. (2004). Does legal education have undermining effects on law students? Evaluating changes in motivation, values, and well‐being. Behavioral sciences & the law, 22(2), 261-286.

• Cited in 1.3: Student Life in the 21^st Century 
• The authors of this paper evaluated changes in subjective wellbeing, motivation, and values for law students at two law schools.
• Students with the most intrinsic motivation received the highest grades, but high grades were also associated with a shift in career preference from “service-oriented” to “lucrative”.

Sheldon, K. M., & Krieger, L. S. (2007). Understanding the negative effects of legal education on law students: A longitudinal test of self-determination theory.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(6), 883-897.

• Cited in 1.3: Student Life in the 21^st Century and Research Snapshot 1.3
• The authors of this paper report a 3-year longitudinal study, in which they applied self-determination theory to two different law schools.
• Although overall students’ wellbeing declined across the three years, findings support the applicability of SDT to teaching law. Specifically, students who perceived greater autonomy had better wellbeing in 3^rd year, better bar exam results, and more self-determined motivation for the first job after graduation.

Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Deci, E. L. (2006). Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal contents in self-determination theory: Another look at the quality of academic motivation. Educational psychologist, 41(1), 19-31.

• Cited in Research Snapshot 1.3, and 3.1: How Teachers can Support Student Wellbeing 
• This paper reviews recent research investigating the relationship between students’ goals and their level of engagement and persistence.
• The authors argue that the context of the goal (i.e., intrinsic or extrinsic contexts) matters just as much – if not more – than the students’ motives or the learning context.
• They explain this relationship in the context of self-determination theory’s three basic psychological needs (competence, autonomy, and relatedness).

The following websites have been mentioned throughout our learning resources. In alphabetical order:

• The Australian Psychology Association has on its website a set of user-friendly information guides about different mental health difficulties (including anxiety, depression and stress).

• Beyond Blue is a national organisation dedicated to mental health.

• Black Dog Institute have a lot of useful resources, including to this guide that outlines the top ten elements of the workplace that contribute to stress and mental health issues.

• Dissertation Supervision is an OLT project investigating experiences of supervision, from the perspective of the student, the supervisor, and their manager.

• Headspace is a national foundation dedicated to improving the wellbeing of young Australians.

• The Judicial College of Victoria and County Court Victoria developed a website with links to fact sheets and podcasts about various stressors that can impact a person’s level of stress.

• Mind Health Connect is a website about mental health and wellbeing, developed by the Australian Government.

• MindMatters is an initiative that focuses on wellbeing in primary and secondary schools. The website modules offer some useful parallels for thinking about wellbeing in higher education.

• Mood Gym is a website that helps people to identify and address thoughts and behaviours related to depression and anxiety. The website was developed by Australian National University.

• My Compass is an online tool designed to help a person track his or her own mood over a period of time.

• My Plus Wellbeing is a site dedicated to all matters wellbeing, from Auckland University, NZ

• An initiative by Stanford University to reframe  failure and set backs as learning opportunities (rather than end-points or definitions of the person’s abilities). Includes short interviews with professors and successful entrepreneurs, projects by students, and a video recording of the 2016 conference “Stanford, I Scewed Up!”.

• The Desk aims to support Australian tertiary students to achieve mental and physical health and wellbeing, by providing free access to online modules, tools, quizzes and advice.

• The Fridge is an evidence-based, self-serve resource for university students looking to better manage their time, goals, motivation, and well-being.

• The Mighty is a website dedicated to publishing real stories by real people facing challenges such as mental illness, disability and rare diseases. It includes a range of inspiring resources and stories about higher education, including this collection of students’ comments on things they wish their teachers knew about their anxiety, and this advice to students with anxiety who are starting university.

• Dr Helen Stallman developed this youtube video, offering advice to first-year students about how to look after themselves as they find their feet at university.

• Wellbeing in Higher Education is a global network drawing on positive psychology. It includes elements of teaching, co-curricular, research and conferences about wellbeing